New Testament

New Testament. A collection of early Christian texts written in the first century AD in Koine Greek that testify to the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth and the experience of His early followers.

The term “Testament” derives from the Latin testamentum and, in regular usage, refers to a post-mortem will and testimony. The term was used by early Christians to translate the Greek term diathēkē, which, while normally denoting a person’s will, has a broader meaning in biblical usage. In the LXX, it is used to translate the OT Hebrew term berit, which denotes an agreement or covenant between two parties. It is in this latter sense that the term “New Testament” should be understood as a reference to a new covenant or agreement between God and His people, distinguished from the “Old Testament,” also known as the Hebrew Bible (cf. diathēkēn kainēn “new covenant” in Heb 8:8).

Contents of the New Testament. The majority of Christians recognize the NT as consisting of 27 texts. The earliest extant listing of the complete NT canon is dated to AD 367 and was written by Athanasius of Alexandria (c. AD 296–373), a Coptic church father from Egypt:

But we must not look upon it as a task to speak of the books of the New Testament. These then are the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Afterwards, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Catholic Epistles, called of the Apostles, seven in number, viz. of James, one; of Peter, two; of John, three; and then, one of Jude. Besides these, there are fourteen Epistles of the Apostle Paul, written in this order. The first, to the Romans; then two to the Corinthians; after these, to the Galatians; next, to the Ephesians; then to the Philippians and to the Colossians; after these, two to the Thessalonians, and that to the Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy; one to Titus; and lastly, that to Philemon. To these, the Revelation of John.

(Ep. fest. 39.5, in The Festal Epistles of S. Athanasius, trans. by Henry Burgess. Oxford: John Henry Parker, 1854).

Such a list did not confer authority or a status of inspiration upon NT texts but rather recognized and affirmed the longstanding and widespread acceptance of these texts by early Christians as holy scripture (see also the Muratorian Canon and Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.25.1–4). The NT may be divided into different divisions according to authorship and genre:

·      Four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John)

·      The Acts of the Apostles

• Thirteen Pauline Epistles (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon)

• The Epistle to the Hebrews (anonymous, but often viewed as Pauline)

• Seven general epistles (James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2, and 3 John, Jude)

• The Apocalypse

The order of texts varies in many early manuscript collections. Codex Sinaiticus, for example, presents a collection of NT and non-canonical texts in the following order: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Acts, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation, Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas. There is also good manuscript evidence indicating that more limited collections consisting of the gospels or a limited number of the epistles of Paul circulated in the early second century AD before they were finally gathered into the NT canon as we understand it today.

Commentators speculate as to the rationale for the canonical order of NT texts. They ask why, for example, Matthew precedes Mark when it is likely that Mark was written before Matthew. Many scholars suggest that popularity was a factor, that Matthew is presented as the first Gospel because, from its earliest reception, it was the more popular of the two gospels. Others point to early traditions indicating that Matthew wrote before Mark (Irenaeus, Haer. 3.1.1; Origen in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 6.25.4). Similarly, why does 2 Corinthians follow rather than precede 1 Corinthians? Does it reflect the chronological order of composition, or is it simply because 2 Corinthians is shorter than 1 Corinthians, just as 2 Thessalonians is shorter than 1 Thessalonians and 2 Timothy is shorter than 1 Timothy? Answers to these questions remain conjectures at best and do not fundamentally change either the status or impact of NT texts.

Authorship of the New Testament. Determining the authorship of NT texts requires us to consider three sources of data: (1) titles attached to NT texts by those who first preserved and transmitted the texts; (2) internal references by the author; and (3) early church traditions, often attributed to those who knew the authors of the NT or their immediate followers. Such traditions include Papias, who knew those who knew the apostles (ca. AD 140; Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.39.1–7), and Irenaeus (ca. AD 185).  

Titles. Scholars are divided over whether the Gospels originally included titles (e.g., According to Matthew). Some believe them to be later additions. Others believe that the Gospels would not have been accepted without having been associated with a leading authoritative figure closely associated with Jesus. The same debate applies to a greater or lesser extent to other NT texts. The epistles normally include a reference to the recipients in the opening greeting, although Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians famously lacks a reference to Ephesus in 1:1 in a number of important early manuscripts (cf. 𝔓⁴⁶, ℵ, B).

Internal References. We can trust internal references to the authors of NT texts as trustworthy indicators of authorship on the basis that texts were privately circulated and relied for their acceptance on the approval of a social network characterized by strong interpersonal bonds. Early Christians accepted Paul’s epistles, for example, because they either knew him personally or those who bore his epistles to their original recipients.

One difficulty we face in determining authorship based on internal references to named persons is, however, the fact that there were often multiple individuals in the early church who shared the same name. Scholars debate, for example, as to which Mark wrote the Gospel: “John, whose other name is Mark” (Acts 12:12; cf. 12:25; 15:37) or possibly a different “Mark” (cf. Col 4:10; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 24; 1 Pet 5:13). Many believe that these references refer to the same Mark. The same difficulty applies to the Gospel of John. In the NT there is John, son of Zebedee (e.g., Matt 4:21; Mark 5:37; 9:2; 14:33), John, the father of Simon Peter (John 1:42), “John, whose other name is Mark” (Acts 12:12), the John of the Apocalypse (Rev 1:1), as well as “the elder” of 2 John 1 and 3 John 1. Early traditions attribute authorship of the Fourth Gospel to John, the son of Zebedee.

Disputed Pauline Epistles. Pauline scholarship is split on the issue of the authorship of his epistles. Many accept a core group of seven epistles as genuinely Pauline. The remaining six epistles are deemed to be pseudepigraphical, written possibly by associates or followers of Paul:

Accepted Pauline Epistles                Disputed Pauline Epistles

Romans                                               Ephesians

First and Second Corinthians            Colossians

Galatians                                             Second Thessalonians

Philippians                                          First and Second Timothy

Philemon                                             Titus

First Thessalonians

The reasoning of such scholars is twofold. First, they point to stylistic differences between the epistles. The choice of Greek vocabulary, syntax structures, and literary style of Ephesians, one of the disputed epistles, is quite different, for example, from that of Romans or Galatians. Second, they argue that there are important theological differences between the two groups of epistles.

In response, conservative scholarship continues to promote Pauline authorship of all thirteen epistles traditionally ascribed to Paul. They argue that stylistic differences reflect Paul’s use of amanuenses, a literary assistant or scribe. Tertius, for example, identifies himself as the writer of Romans (Rom 16:22). The difficulty we face is deciding to what degree the epistle reflects his thoughts and expressions and those of Paul. In addition, a degree of shared authorship is implied in many of Paul’s epistles. His first epistle to the Thessalonians, for example, opens with the following names: “Paul, Silvanus (i.e., Silas), and Timothy” (1 Thess 1:1). If Paul employed an amanuensis to write this letter, then potentially up to four individuals were involved in its production. In terms of theological differences, conservative scholars argue that many of the differences between the two groups of the epistles are more perceived than real. They affirm that Paul’s theology is both contextually specific and reflective of an ongoing process of inspired revelation. Adventist scholarship supports this latter position.

“Disputed” Texts. The majority of NT texts were generally accepted as holy scripture by the end of the first century AD. There was, however, a small group of texts, labeled “disputed,” often because their authorship was disputed, for which widespread acceptance took a longer period of time. These include Hebrews, 2 Peter, James, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, and Revelation. Differences in attitude were often geographic, with some texts being accepted in some areas but rejected elsewhere. Hebrews was more readily accepted in the eastern parts of the Roman Empire than in the west. Revelation was accepted in the West but disputed in the East. Key to this discussion is the observation that all NT texts were accepted as scripture by some sections of early Christianity, even if it took longer for some than others to gain universal recognition.

Dating of the New Testament. Determining when NT texts were written requires consideration of (1) the style of the original Greek, (2) internal evidence, and (3) external evidence. We must take into consideration the possibility that NT authors kept copies of their writings and encouraged early Christian communities to copy and recopy their texts. A significant benefit of determining the date of composition of NT texts is that it enables readers to trace the unfolding sequence of divine revelation in the earliest Christian era.

Style. The style of NT Greek varies, with some texts more heavily influenced by Hebrew idioms and syntax, such as Revelation, and others, such as the Gospel of Luke, reflecting a more standard Greek. Style may even vary both in and between works by the same author. Scholars note a stylistic shift in the second half of Acts to the first half of Acts and the Gospel of Luke. These factors make direct comparisons with datable non-Jewish Koine Greek texts somewhat difficult to make.

Internal Evidence. This form of evidence consists of references in NT texts to historical persons and/or events referred to in other datable historical sources. An important example is Acts 18:12, which locates Paul in Corinth when Gallio was proconsul of Achaia. Inscriptional evidence indicates that Gallio served as proconsul from July AD 51 to June AD 52. Gallio was from Spain and the son of Marcus Annaeus Seneca, an important rhetorician and younger brother of the famous Stoic philosopher and politician, Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC–AD 65), tutor of the emperor Nero (on Gallio, cf. Seneca, Epistles 104.1; Pliny, Natural History 21.33; Tacitus, Annals 15.73; Dio Cassius, Roman History61.35). The dating of Gallio’s period in office allows us to reconstruct the chronology of Paul’s journeys and thereby date the composition of 1 Thessalonians, based on Paul’s reference to his sending of Timothy from Corinth to Thessalonica and Timothy’s subsequent return (1 Thess 3:1, 6), to around AD 52.

            Another important example of internal data is the use of Jesus’ prediction of Jerusalem’s destruction in Matthew 24:15–22, Mark 13:14–20, and Luke 21:20–24 to date the composition of the synoptic Gospels. Many scholars assume that such predictions are vaticinia ex eventu (“prophecies after the event”), prophecies written after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, based upon their belief that Jesus could not have predicted such events during His earthly ministry forty years earlier. Other scholars are not skeptical about Jesus’ predictive abilities, opening up the possibility of earlier dating options. Adventist scholars affirm this latter position.

External Evidence. Scholars consider two external sources of data for dating NT texts. First, they apply the principles of textual criticism to date the earliest manuscripts. One of the oldest NT manuscripts, Papyrus Rylands, which contains fragments of John 18:31–33, is frequently dated to the early second century. This sets the latest date by which the Fourth Gospel was composed, even though other data suggest a first-century composition.

A second source of external data is the numerous quotations of and allusions to the NT found in the Apostolic Fathers. If, for example, Ignatius, the second bishop of Antioch between ca. AD 70­­­–107, refers to most of the texts from the NT, then we have to assume an earlier date of composition for such texts. Ignatius, who may well have been a disciple of John, refers to Matthew, Luke, John, Peter, James, and Paul’s Epistles (e.g., 1 Cor 6:9. 10 in Eph. 16:1; Matt 15:13 in Trall. 11.1 and Phld. 3.1). Another Apostolic Father, Polycarp, born ca. AD 70, served as bishop of Smyrna until his execution at the age of 86 or more (cf. Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 4.15.20). Early traditions claim that he knew the apostle John and interacted with people who knew the other disciples of Jesus personally (Hist. eccl. 3.28.6; 3.36.1; 5.24.16). Quotations and allusions to the NT are profuse in Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians, written ca. AD 110 (e.g., Mark 9:35 quoted in Phil. 2). These sources set the end date by which NT texts must have been written and counteract those who would push the writing of some NT texts well into the second century AD. They also testify to the early widespread acceptance of NT texts. For the dating of individual NT texts, see their respective articles in this dictionary.

Relationship of the New Testament to the Old Testament. New Testament texts reflect (1) genres and motifs common to the first-century Greco-Roman world; (2) biblical and extra-biblical Jewish literary and cultural traditions; and (3) Jesus-related eyewitness memories. The combination of these three traditions marks out the NT from both Greco-Roman and Second Temple Jewish literature. 

Fulfillment of OT Promises. In general, the authors of the NT situate their writings in continuity with the OT. They employ a broad range of intertextual devices to evoke the OT (e.g., explicit statements, John 3:14; implicit citations, Mark 1:6 to LXX 2 Kgs 1:8; similar circumstances or narrative structures; keywords or phrases). Extensive explicit and implicit citations of the Hebrew (e.g., Matt 11:10; Mark 10:19), the Greek (e.g., Luke 4:18; John 12:38), and Aramaic (e.g., Mark 9:48) Old Testament(s) are found throughout the NT.

Numerous fulfillment formulae using the Greek term plēroō (“to fulfill,” “in order that it be fulfilled”; cf. Matt 1:22; 2:15, 17; 4:14; John 13:18) reveal an understanding that the events to which the NT testifies represent the climax, the completion in some sense, of OT expectations. This sense of continuity between the OT and NT is not limited to the authors of the NT. There is strong evidence that the first followers of Jesus also held this position. Paul identifies an early Christian tradition he received as the belief that “Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures” (1 Cor 15:3). This statement may well have been part of an early Christian confessional formula used within the earliest communities to affirm their core beliefs. Luke, in particular, while not an eyewitness of the ministry of Jesus, characterizes Jesus as conceiving of His ministry as the fulfillment of “the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms” (Luke 24:44; cf. 4:21; 24:27). This reveals a strong conviction on the part of Luke that the source of many early Christian readings of the OT was Jesus Himself.

Filling the OT with New Meaning. The Greek term plēroō may be understood in a second sense, indicating that, at least from a Christian perspective, the OT should now be read through the lens of the NT. While connoting fulfillment, plēroō may also connote “to fill (full),” and in this sense, the NT should be understood as not merely the fulfillment of OT expectations, but as the “filling full” of the OT with additional significance.

This is one highly plausible interpretation of the use of plēroō in Matthew 5:17 (“Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the prophets; I have come not to abolish but to fulfill”). In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus does not merely transmit OT traditions, He is an authoritative interpreter of them (cf. 5:21–42), a voice that is to be heard in its own terms in conjunction with the law and the prophets (“This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him!”, 17:5), a teacher who, like the master of a household, “brings out of his treasure what is new and what is old” (13:52). Where necessary, He will even revise OT traditions if He deems that they do not promote the original intentions of God. In Matthew 19:7–9, Jesus rejects the Pharisees’ appeal to the command of Moses in Deuteronomy 24:1–4 that they provide a certificate of dismissal when divorcing their wives on the basis that the command was given by Moses because of their hard hearts and because it did not reflect God’s original intention for the husband-wife relationship.

This sense that the NT includes additional revelation to that found in the OT is also found in the writings of Paul. For example, he refers in his Epistle to the Ephesians to a revelation he received concerning a “mystery of Christ,” a mystery “not made known to humankind” in “former generations” (Eph 3:5). In context, the particular “mystery” (mystērion, “secret”) to which he refers is the inclusion of Gentiles as part of the people of God (2:11–22). Scholars have observed that this development was not entirely unanticipated in the OT (cf. Gen 12:1–3; 18:18; Isa 2:2–4; 11:10; 49:6; Jer 3:17). It is also a theme taken up by other NT writers (cf. Isa 42:6; 49:6 in Luke 2:32). Nevertheless, Paul claims that this mystery was made known to him kata apokalypsin “by revelation” (Eph 3:3), whether this be a clarification, expansion, or significant development of OT expectations.

Jesus as Scripture. Finally, Paul may well consider the words of Jesus Himself to be holy scripture. In 1 Timothy 5:18, he shares two quotes in support of his command in v. 17 that elders be honored. He writes, “. . . for the scripture says, ‘You shall not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain,’ and, ‘The laborer deserves to be paid.’” The first quote is taken from Deuteronomy 25:4, and the second (“The laborer deserves to be paid”) is the words of Jesus recorded in Luke 10:7. Many scholars consider Paul to be attributing to the words of Jesus the same status as the Torah, the most revered section of the OT within Judaism. We can be confident that Paul’s reverence for the words of Jesus was not unique but rather reflected the attitude of other NT authors and the earliest followers of Jesus.

The Theological Focus of the New Testament. Jesus declares in Matthew 28:18 that He has “all authority in heaven and earth” (cf. 10:1). It is from this authority, the authority of Jesus, that the NT derives its authority. The NT is both a revelation about Jesus and a revelation from Jesus. This is inferred in the opening words of the Gospel of Mark:“The beginning of the good news of Jesus Christ” (Mark 1:1). This phrase may refer to the good news about Jesus in the sense that the Gospel of Mark, as with the other Gospels, reveals the details of the ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus. It may also refer to the good news from Jesus, the message He proclaimed and shared with others. In Mark and the other synoptic Gospels, the message from Jesus centers around His proclamation of the kingdom of God (e.g., Matt. 6:33; Mark 1:15; Luke 4:43). The equivalent message from Jesus in the Gospel of John is His testimony about His Father, a testimony continued through the Spirit (John 14:6–7, 26; 15:26).

About Jesus and From Jesus. These two emphases, revelation about and from Jesus, are found throughout the rest of the NT. Paul, for example, describes the central focus of his proclamation to the Corinthians as “Jesus Christ, and him crucified” (1 Cor 2:2), a message about Jesus. This is expanded throughout his epistles in his numerous reflections on the crucifixion, burial, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus and His relation to the Godhead (e.g., Rom 6:1–14; 1 Cor 15:3–4; Gal 2:19–21; Eph 1:20–23; Phil 2:5–11). He also, however, refers to revelations he received directly from Jesus, whether it be personal visions or revelations of the Lord (2 Cor 12:1–10; Gal 1:15–16), his gospel message (1:11–12), or a “word of the Lord” given to him for the exhortation of early Christian believers (1 Thess 4:15).

Similarly, the Apocalypse of John presents both a message about Jesus and a message from Jesus. It is about Jesus in that He is revealed to be, amongst His many identities, a warrior-priest, the Son of Man (Rev 1:12–20; cf. Dan 10:4–9), the slaughtered Lamb and the worthy Prophet (Rev 5:1–14). It is also a message from Jesus as indicated in its opening words, “the revelation of Jesus Christ” (Rev 1:1), which, in context, refers to a message concerning “what must soon take place,” a revelation given by God to Jesus for the church. The Apocalypse may thus be understood as a revelation from Jesus.

Trinitarian Framework. The NT revelation of Jesus Christ is to be understood within a trinitarian framework. The revelation of Jesus is also a revelation of the Father. Peter proclaims that Jesus was attested by God “with deeds of power, wonders, and signs that God did through him among you” (Acts 2:22; cf. 2:36; 3:13, 26; 5:29–32). The deeds of Jesus are the deeds of the Father. In Pauline terms, the God of the OT, principally known for creation and the exodus (e.g., Exod 20:2; Num 15:41; Ps 115:15), is now to be understood as the One “who raised [Jesus] from the dead” (Gal 1:1; Col 2:12; cf. 1 Pet 1:21). He thus redefined in terms focusing on His relationship to Jesus. The revelation of Jesus is also a revelation of the Holy Spirit. Luke, in particular, portrays Jesus in this manner, as one “guided by,” “full of,” “filled with the power of,” and “rejoicing in” the Spirit (Luke 2:27; 4:1, 14; 10:21). The Spirit is revealed in Jesus. Likewise, in the Fourth Gospel, both the Father and Jesus confer the Holy Spirit, whose mission is to testify to Jesus, whose own mission is to testify to the Father (John 7:39; 14:26; 15:26).

The NT includes historical, propositional, and theological truths about Jesus. At the same time, it embodies His direct appeal to humanity, whether it be to first-century AD Jews and Gentiles or later audiences.

References

Burge, Gary M., Lynn H. Cohick, and Gene L. Green. The New Testament in Antiquity. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009.

Carson, Donald A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005.

Evans, Craig A., and Stanley E. Porter, eds. Dictionary of New Testament Background. Leicester, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 2000.

Green, Joel B., Jannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin, eds. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, 2nd ed. Nottingham, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 2013.

Guthrie, Donald, New Testament Introduction, 4th ed. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1990.

Hawthorne, Gerald F., and Ralph P. Martin, eds. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Leicester, UK: Inter-Varsity Press, 1993.

Marshall, I. Howard. New Testament Theology: Many Witnesses, One Gospel. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2014.

Martin, Ralph P., and Peter H. Davids, eds. Dictionary of the Later New Testament & Its Developments. Leicester, UK: InterVarsity Press, 1997.

Rodríguez, Ángel M., ed. Andrews Bible Commentary: New Testament. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 2022.

Wright, N. T., and Michael F. Bird. The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2019.