Trinity

Trinity. While the biblical writers stress that there is only one God, they also refer to the existence of three divine persons. The identity and relationship between the divine persons are gradually revealed in biblical history. While the Bible does not use the term “Trinity,” it progressively teaches the concept of three divine persons, known as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, who are so unified in their nature, character, and actions that they are truly one. This biblical concept has tremendous theological, spiritual, relational, and social implications.

The One God. The most explicit reference to the oneness of God is the shema‘: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deut 6:4). The Israelites were to direct their love, loyalty, service, and worship only to the true God and not to other deities (Deut 4:35, 39; 6:5, 13-15; 32:39). The oneness of God is stressed similarly by other writers in the OT (1 Sam 2:2; 2 Sam 7:22; Job 23:13; Isa 43:10-11; 44:6-8; 45:5-6; 46:9; Zec 14:9) and the NT (Mark 12:29, 32; Rom 3:30; 1 Cor 8:4; Gal 3:20; 1 Tim 2:5; Jam 2:19). The one God of the Bible is unique in that He differs both from the inanimate, silent, and inactive idols of the nations that were created and conceived by humans (Isa 40:18-20; 46:5-7; Ps 96:4, 5), and from their neighbors’ polytheism, with various competing deities, which were simply conceived by human minds. Some biblical writers add the notion that some idols actually represented demons that were thus worshiped by the nations (Lev 17:7; Deut 32:16, 17; 1 Cor 10:20), standing in contrast to the one true God.

The Bible writers describe several attributes of God. They describe God as personal and omnipresent (Ps 139:7-12), omniscient (Ps 139:1-4), omnipotent (Matt 19:26), eternal (Ps 90:2), self-existent (Exod 3:14; John 5:26; 1 Tim 6:16), morally immutable (Mal 3:6), and just and merciful (Ps 145:9; 19:8-10). God’s nature is one of perfect, self-sacrificing love (1 John 4:8). The one God is described as “the first” and “the last” (Isa 44:6), which is why He can say, “Before me no god was formed, nor shall there be any after me” (43:10). Stressing His exclusive power to save, He adds, “I, I am the LORD, and besides me there is no savior” (Isa 43:11). His past actions prove that “I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is none like me” (46:9; cf. 2 Sam 7:22; 1 Chr 17:20). That no one is like YHWH is also stressed in other passages (Exod 8:10; 9:14; Deut 3:24; 33:26; 1 Kgs 8:23; Ps 86:8; Jer 10:6, 7). His unique identity and His perfect holiness justify His claim to be the exclusive object of worship (Exod 20:3-5; 34:14; Deut 5:7-9; 6:13, 14; 1 Sam 2:2; 2 Kgs 17:35, 36).

The OT refers to the one God frequently with the generic singular noun ’el (Gen 31:13; Exod 34:6-7; Josh 22:22; Deut 32:18); the singular noun ’eloah (Deut 32:15; Job 3:4; 4:9; 5:17; 6:4), expanded from the Northwest Semitic noun ’il; the Aramaic noun ’elah (Jer 10:11; Ezra 5:5; 7:16; 9:14; Dan 2:18, 20, 28; 6:6, 8, 23); and the grammatical plural noun ’elohim (2,500+ occurrences). Depending on the context, those terms are used in the OT either as generic terms or as proper names. At times, special divine attributes are added to the generic term; see, for example, ’el ro’i (“God of seeing,” Gen 16:13), ’el shaddai (“God Almighty,” Gen 17:1), and ’el ‘olam (“Everlasting God,” Gen 21:33). Most often God is uniquely addressed as YHWH (6,800+ occurrences). In Exodus 3:13-15, God provides the explanation, ’ehyeh ’asher ’ehyeh (“I am/will be/cause to be who I am/will be/cause to be”), before He mentions the name YHWH, suggesting that YHWH implies His nature as creator, sustainer, and eternally existent One. Interestingly, Hebrew does not have a present tense/conjugation, just past/perfect and future/imperfect tenses/conjugations. Since God is, was, and will always be, only He can say “I am.” This was also recognized in an early Rabbinic translation of the Bible, where ’ehyeh ’asher ’ehyeh was translated into Aramaic as ’ana’ hu’ (“I He,” Tg. Yon. Exod 3:14). The name YHWH is regularly employed to address the covenant God of Israel. Other terms used to refer to God are, among others, ’adonai (“Lord,” Gen 18:30) and YHWH tseba’ot (“Lord of hosts,” 1 Sam 1:3). The LXX regularly translated the Hebrew YHWH with the Greek term kyrios, likely to prevent readers from using God’s name in vain (Exod 20:7), a practice the Masoretes continued by adding the vowels of ’adonai to YHWH as a reminder to read ’adonai rather than YHWH. The NT writers regularly employ the Greek terms theos (“God,” Matt 3:9), kyrios (“Lord,” Rev 1:8), and pantokratōr (“the Almighty,” Rev 4:8).

The Plurality of God. From the very beginning, the Bible writers indicate the existence of several divine persons. Genesis 1:1-3 states, “In the beginning, God [’elohim] created the heavens and the earth. . . . And the Spirit of God [ruakh ’elohim] was hovering over the face of the waters. And God said, ‘. . . .’” The Holy Spirit’s active involvement in creation is also highlighted in other biblical passages (Job 26:13; 33:4; Ps 33:6). The NT writers interpreted this passage (“And God said”) as an allusion to the Son’s creative activity as the divine “word” (John 1:1-3, 14; Col 1:16; Heb 1:2, 3). Accordingly, God’s creative activity in Genesis 1:1-3 would seem to include the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. Further, the one God says, “Let Us make man in Our image, after Our likeness. And let them have dominion over . . . . So Godcreated man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them” (Gen 1:26, 27). The plural pronoun in this passage likely constitutes a quantitative plural rather than a royal plural because the Israelite kings are always addressed in the singular form, suggesting that the concept of the royal plural is foreign to the OT. “In Our image” and “His own image” did God create one man, made as man and woman (two persons). The desired oneness of man and woman was beautifully expressed through the Hebrew word ’ekhad (2:24). Despite their individualities, they were to enjoy a close, intimate union, analogous to the oneness (’ekhad) of God stressed in the shema‘ (Deut 6:4). The semantic field of ’ekhad also includes the meaning of a numerical one, as the more narrow word yakhid denotes (Gen 22:2, 12; Judg 11:34; Zec 12:10), yet unlike yakhid, ’ekhad can refer to the undivided unity and harmony between various entities (e.g., Gen 11:1, 6; Exod 24:3; Judg 20:1, 8, 11; 2 Chr 30:12; Ezra 3:1; Ezek 37:17, 22; Zeph 3:9). The potential composite nature of ’ekhad is also seen in some NT passages where Jesus states that He and the Father “are one” (hen esmen) (John 10:30; 17:21-23). The interplay between singular (the one God) and plural (the individual divine persons) in reference to God also occurs in other places (e.g., Gen 3:22-24; 11:7-8; Isa 6:1, 8).

The frequent use of the plural noun ’elohim for the one God of Israel, although the biblical writers could also have used the singular forms ’el, ’eloah, and ’elah, presents an inherent intimation of the plurality of God. Curiously, the use of the plural ’elohim was not common in the Canaanite religions; they usually employed singular forms to refer to their respective gods. Further, the linking of ’elohim with singular verb forms in the creation account (Gen 1:1-31) reflects the interplay between singular and plural pronouns in God’s creation of Adam and Eve (Gen 1:26-27). Psalm 45:6-7 states that God (’elohim) was anointed by His God (’eloheka), stressing the existence of at least two persons who are ’elohim. Hebrews 1:8-9 quotes this passage and applies it to the relationship between the incarnated Jesus (ho theos) and His Father (ho theos sou) (vv. 5, 8).

Further, several biblical passages suggest a plurality of Yahweh. In Genesis 19:24, Yahweh (YHWH) lets fire and sulfur rain down on Sodom and Gomorrah from Yahweh out of heaven (me’et YHWH min-hashamaim). In Psalm 110:1, David noted that Yahweh (YHWH) spoke to “my Lord” (’adoni) thus: “Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool.” God’s invitation to David’s “Lord” to sit with Him on His throne implies the divine nature of that “Lord,” and Hebrews 1:13 identifies that Lord as Jesus. Further, Hebrews 2:12-13 applies Psalm 22:22; 18:2; and Isaiah 8:18 to Jesus, suggesting that believers are both His “brothers” and His “children.”

In Isaiah 42:1, YHWH speaks of “My Servant whom I uphold, My Elect One in whom My soul delights! I have put My Spirit upon Him.” In 48:2, 16-17, the Servant of the Lord of hosts (YHWH tseba’ot) states that the Lord God (’adonai YHWH) sends Him and His Spirit (rukho). In these and other passages (61:1-3; 63:8-12), Isaiah makes a distinction between YHWH, His Servant, and His Spirit. In Jeremiah 23:2, 5-6, YHWH promised to “raise up for David a righteous Branch” who shall be called “The Lord [YHWH] is our righteousness,” a promise that was fulfilled in Jesus (1 Cor 1:30; Jer 33:15, 16). Whereas 1 Corinthians 8:5 refers to the Father as the one God (theos), it speaks of Jesus as the one Lord (kurios), a term regularly employed in the LXX and the Greek NT to translate the Hebrew YHWH. Far from suggesting an inferiority of the Son in nature or being, Paul notes that as part of the plan of redemption, the Father subjects everything to Christ, whose role it is to subject everything to Him “so that God might be all in all” (1 Cor 15:28).

Another interesting phenomenon is the identification of the Angel of the Lord (mal’ak YHWH) with YHWH in about one-third of the occurrences of the otherwise angelic messenger. Yet, here the word mal’ak focuses on His function (messenger) rather than His ontological nature (a created being). When the Angel of the Lord speaks in those cases, it is thus actually Yahweh who speaks (Gen 16:7-13; Exod 3:2-6; Judg 6:11-26; 13:2-25; likely also Gen 18:1–19:21; 22:9-18; Num 22:31-38; Judg 2:1-5; Zech 3:1-2). In Exodus 23:20-21 (cf. 20:22), YHWH stresses that His name is in that mal’ak. Since the name of God signifies His character and nature, that mal’ak seems to be another YHWH. The mal’ak YHWH is further identified as Israel’s redeemer from evil (Isa 63:9), although just a couple of chapters before YHWH stressed that “besides me there is no savior” (43:11).

In the Pauline writings, some OT YHWH passages are applied to the Father (Rom 4:7-8 [Ps 32:1-2]; 9:27-29 [Hos 1:10; Isa 10:22; 1:9]; 11:34 [Isa 40:13]; 15:9-11 [Ps 18:49; Deut 32:43; Ps 117:1]; 1 Cor 3:20 [Job 5:13; Ps 94:11]; 2 Cor 6:18 [2 Sam 7:14]) whereas other YHWH passages are used with Christ as a referent (Rom 10:13 [Joel 2:32]; 14:11 [Isa 45:23]; 1 Cor 1:31 and 2 Cor 10:17 [Jer 9:24]; 1 Cor 2:16 [Isa 40:13]; 10:26 [Ps 24:1]; 2 Tim 2:19 [Num 16:5]). Allusions to OT YHWH passages appear in several other Pauline writings, applying them to the Lord Jesus (1 Cor 10:20-22 [Mal 1:7, 12; Deut 32:17, 21]; 1 Thess 2:17 – 3:13 [Zech 14:5]; 1 Thess 4:3, 6, 7 [Ps 94:1]; 2 Thess 1:7, 8 [Isa 66:15 LXX]; 2 Thess 1:9, 12 [Isa 2:11, 17; 66:5]; 2 Cor 3:16 [Exod 34:34]; Phil 2:10, 11 [Isa 45:23]).

Various biblical passages identify the Father, Jesus, and the Spirit each as God. All three possess divine attributes and are included in triadic references and structures, describing their relationship and joint-work in the plan of salvation. While the account of Jesus’ baptism does not refer to the three as God, it clearly distinguishes between them when the incarnated Jesus is at the Jordan River, the Holy Spirit comes down on Him, and the Father’s voice resounds from heaven (Matt 3:16-17; Mark 1:10-11; Luke 3:21-22). The following paragraphs describe one after another the divinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

The Father as God. The divine identity of the Father is attested consistently throughout the Bible. The Bible portrays God as a parent. While the Bible places an emphasis on God as a Father (Deut 1:31; 32:6; Ps 103:13; Prov 3:12; Jer 3:19; Hos 11:1, 8; Matt 6:9), some passages also employ feminine imagery to describe specific attributes of God’s character and relationship to His people (Deut 32:18; Isa 49:15; 66:13). Both man and woman are made in God’s image, which is why God’s care for His creatures is reflected in the care of human fathers and mothers for their children. God instructs humans whom He created to procreate more humans, and their children are commanded to honor their parents as humans honor God (Exod 20:2-12). In the NT writings, the generic term theos (“God”) is predominantly used for the Father (e.g., John 8:41, 42; 13:3; 20:17; Rom 1:7; Eph 5:20). But He is also referred to as the Lord (kyrios; Rev 1:8; 4:8, 11; 15:3-4; etc.), the Almighty (pantokratōr; Rev 1:8; 4:8; 11:17; 15:3; 16:7, 14; 19:6, 15; 21:22); Sovereign Lord (despotēs; Rev 6:10), the Holy One (ho hosios; Rev 16:5), the One who is, was, and is to come (Rev 1:4, 8; 4:8; 11:17; 16:5; cf. Exod 3:14), the Father of Jesus (Rev 1:6; 2:28; 3:5, 21; 14:1), Alpha and Omega, beginning and end (Rev 1:8; 21:6), the One sitting on the throne (e.g., 4:2, 9, 10; 5:1, 7, 13; 6:16; 7:10, 15), and the One living from eternity to eternity (Rev 4:9, 10, 10:6; 15:7). The Bible describes the Father as eternally existent (Ps 90:2), creator (Isa 45:18), omnipotent (Rev 1:8), omniscient (Ps 139:4), omnipresent (Jer 23:24), love (1 John 4:8), and worthy of worship (Rev 14:7). The worship of the Lord God Almighty by the four living creatures in Revelation 4:8 parallels the angelic worship of the Lord of hosts in Isaiah 6:3. The Lord God Almighty is clearly a reference to the Father.

While the Father is described as transcendent and invisible to mortal sight, He also is portrayed as a continual benefactor. God created the heavens and the earth (Gen 1:1); through the Son, God created the entire universe (Heb 1:1-2). God did not have to be appeased, but He Himself reconciled the world to Himself through Jesus (2 Cor 5:19; John 3:16, 17). Besides being called “the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3), He is called “the Father of all compassion and the God of all comfort” (2 Cor 1:3) from whom we receive “grace, mercy, and peace” (2 John 1:3). While God is the judge (Rev 20:12), the Father himself does not judge (John 5:22). He entrusted all judgment to His representative Jesus, the Son of Man (John 5:22, 23, 27). Thus, in various ways, the Father is always giving and concerned about the welfare of His creatures.

Jesus as God. The clearest reference to Jesus as God (theos) is found in the Gospel of John, which begins with the words, “The Word was with God, and the Word was God” (1:1), affirming the divinity of Jesus (v. 14) while distinguishing Him from the Father. Towards the end of the book, Thomas calls Jesus “my Lord and my God,” an insight that Jesus affirms and praises (20:28, 29). Speaking to the Jews of the twofold witness of Him and His Father (John 8:13-19), Jesus stressed that unless they were to believe that “I am” (egō eimi) they were to die in their sins (8:24). That remark caused them to ask who He is, to which He replied: “Just what I have been telling you from the beginning” (8:25). In fact, their very act of uplifting the Son of Man would make known to them that “I am” (John 8:28). When Jesus said, “Truly, truly, I say to you, before Abraham was, I am [egō eimi]” (John 8:58), the attendant Jewish leaders understood His claim to divinity and eternal preexistence—an allusion to egō eimi in Exod 3:14, 15 LXX—and wanted to stone Him (v. 59). Speaking Aramaic, Jesus most likely employed the words ’ana’ hu’ (“I He”), which appears in the Aramaic translation of YHWH’s self-description in Exodus 3:14 (Tg. Yon. Exod 3:14). Jesus employed the same words in John 4:26. Jesus’ egō eimi satememts remind of God’s self-revelation in Exodus 3 as well as His ’ani hu’ statements in Isaiah (e.g. Isa 43:10; 48:12). In John 13:19, Jesus cited His foreknowledge as evidence for His divinity (egō eimi). Further, Matthew 1:23 identifies the incarnated Jesus as the “God with us” who was promised in Isaiah 7:14 and 8:8, 10. In John 5:18 Jesus’ reference to God as His Father is seen as an act through which He made “Himself equal with God.”

As shown above, the Apostle Paul repeatedly utilizes OT passages to identify Jesus as YHWH (Grk. kyrios) and ’elohim (Grk. theos). The Apostle John identifies Jesus as the Word (Greek logos) that “was with God and . . . was God” “in the beginning” (John 1:1), reminding hearers and readers of the identification of YHWH, and sometimes ’elohim, as memra’ and dibbera’ (Aramaic for “word”) in hundreds of places in the Targums. (Since most first-century Jews were no longer fluent in Hebrew, readings from the Hebrew Bible during synagogue services were usually accompanied by Aramaic explanatory translations preserved in the Targums.) Tg. Neof. and Frg. Tg. P. on Genesis 1 identify the Memra as the agent in creation. Similarly, John 1:1, 10 (“In the beginning was the Word, . . . and the Word was God. . . . The world was made through Him [the Word]”) is reminiscent of Tg. Onq. Deut 33:27 (“The dwelling place of God is from the beginning, [when] through His Word the world was made.”) What was likely surprising to Jews was not the reference to God as the Word but John’s claim that the divine Word incarnated and became a human being.

Further, the NT applies divine attributes to Jesus by describing Him as eternal (Rev 1:18), creator (Col 1:16), omnipotent (Matt 28:18), omniscient (John 2:24-25), omnipresent (Matt 28:20), love (John 15:9), and worthy of worship (1 Cor 1:1-2). As the OT refers to YHWH as the first and the last (Isa 41:4; 48:12), creator (Gen 1:1), judge (Ps 50:4, 6), and light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19, 20), so the NT states that Jesus is the first and the last (Rev 1:17, 18; 2:8), creator (John 1:1-3; Col 1:16-18), judge (John 5:22), and light (John 8:12). As the Old Testament described God as a sower (Isa 61:11; Jer 31:27; Ezek 36:8, 9), a shepherd (Ps 23:1; 80:1; Isa 40:11; Ezek 34:11-12, 15-16), and as bridegroom (Isa 62:5), so Jesus refers to Himself as a sower (Matt 13-23), a shepherd (Luke 15:3-7; John 10:11, 14-16), and as a bridegroom (Matt 9:14-15; cf. John 3:29). The Bible unambiguously stresses that only God is worthy of worship (Matt 4:10; Rev 4:10-11), yet Jesus was clearly worshiped by humans, angels, and other heavenly creatures without Him opposing that worship (Matt 14:33; John 9:38; Rev 5:8, 13-14). It was blasphemous to worship any other being than the one God, but the Father Himself instructs the angels to worship the Son (Heb 1:6). For example, Paul seems to have had Isaiah 45:18, 21, 23 in mind when He wrote that every knee shall bow to Jesus (Phil 2:9-11). Referring to Jesus as the first and the last, Revelation 1:17-18 alludes to Isaiah 44:6-8, a passage that clearly states that besides YHWH there is no other god. Talking about Christ’s preexistence, Paul stressed that Christ had been en morphē theou (“in the form of God”) and isa theō(“equal with God”) (Phil 2:6).

The Sonship of Christ. The KJV’s translation of monogenēs in reference to Jesus (John 1:14, 18; 3:16, 18; 1 John 4:9) as the “only begotten” has historically been associated with Jesus’ supposed emanation outside of time (eternally generated) or His birth in time prior to His incarnation and the creation of the world (having an origin of existence). While the first idea utilizes Platonic assumptions of timelessness and immateriality concerning God’s reality, spiritualizing away the tangibility of heaven and its inhabitants, the second idea raises questions about Jesus’ eternal divinity (eternality) and ultimately about the nature of His divinity. The translators of the KJV and other Bibles followed the example of the Latin Vulgate (translated AD 382-384) in translating monogenēs differently when applied to Christ in order to maintain the idea of His begottenness. However, the adjective monogenēs is formed from the adjective monos (only) and the noun genos (kind), not from the verb gennaō (to beget), so that the meaning of the compound word is “of a single kind” (unique, only). While customarily used for an only child, the monogenēs was also used simply in the sense of “unique” (Wis. 7:22) and “only” (“my only [life];” Ps 21:21; 24:16; 34:17). Hebrews 11:17 refers to Isaac as monogenēs although he was neither Abraham’s only son nor his first son, yet he was the only son of promise through whose progeny salvation would come (Gen 12:2, 7; 15:4-6, 18; 17:3-9, 19; 22:2, 7-8, 12, 16, 18). The uniqueness lies more in the relation to the parent than in the nature of its origin. In the Bible, all uses of the term in relation to persons have something in common. Monogenēs occurs first in the ominous sacrifice of Jephthah’s only daughter (Judg 11:34). The NT writers seem to employ the term in a similar way, too. Luke applies it to three only children (Luke 7:12; 8:42; 9:38) that, being either physically or spiritually dead, were raised to new life, physically or spiritually, by Jesus. Commenting on Genesis 22, Hebrews 11:17-19 describes Abraham as offering up Isaac in faith that God would be able to raise Him from the dead. Then, the Apostle John presents Jesus as the ultimate monogenēs who combines those narratives in Himself, by passing from death to life by way of His sacrifice for the redemption of those who believe in Him and His resurrection from the dead. Through these events, He ultimately revealed the character and glory of God (John 1:14, 18) and He provides eternal life for those believing in Him (3:16, 18; 1 John 4:9), all events ultimately accomplished through His death on the cross. Jerome (AD 342/347-420) likely chose to translate monogenēs with unigenitus (only begotten; John 1:14, 18; 3:16, 18; 1 John 4:9) in reference to Jesus rather than unicus (only, sole, unique) as in other cases (Ps 21:21; 24:16; 34:17; Luke 7:12; 8:42; 9:38) because it would stress Jesus’ uniqueness from other humans and His divine sonship in contrast to the Arian assertion of Him as a mere created being. The only exceptions to that rule of translation are Judges 11:34 and Hebrews 11:17, where messianic allusions are evident.

The usage of monogenēs in the Bible nevertheless suggests a deeper, unique messianic meaning that has nothing to do with an alleged origin of existence in the eternal past (begotten by God as beginning of existence) or eternal present (eternal generation). The NT’s reference to Jesus’ divine sonship often occurs in forward-looking terms. The archangel Gabriel predicted that Jesus “will be called the Son of the Highest” and “the Son of God” (Luke 1:32, 35). The Father called Jesus “my beloved Son” at His baptism (Matt 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22) and His transfiguration (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35; cf. 2 Pet 1:16-18; John 1:14). Whereas the first constituted Jesus’ anointing at the beginning of His public ministry, the second encouraged Jesus’ on His path to reveal the image of God to the very end. This is corroborated by Mark 1:10-11; 15:38-39—two passages linked by the word schizō (tear, rip open) used only in those two places in Mark—where Jesus at His baptism and death is identified as the Son of God. By going all the way, risking everything, and dying on the cross, Jesus ultimately revealed God’s character of unselfish, other-centered love and consistently, until the very end, represented God’s image, validating His claim to be the Son of God. Therefore, the NT writers saw Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 13:33), enthronement (Heb 1:5), and installment as heavenly High Priest (Heb 5:5) as a fulfillment of God’s promise to David, a type of the Messiah, in Psalm 2:7 (“The LORD said to me, ‘You are my Son; today I have begotten you’”). Romans 1:4 corroborates that Jesus was “declared to be the Son of God . . . by the resurrection from the dead.” Those events ultimately ratified that Jesus had accomplished His mission to reveal the image of God and that, therefore, He was truly the Son of God. Through His perfect life and death, Jesus was able to replace Adam who was called “Son of God” (Luke 3:38) because He had been created in the image of God (Gen 1:27; 5:1). The Apostle Paul repeatedly contrasts Adam and Jesus (Rom 5:12-21; 1 Cor 15:17-23, 45-49) to emphasize that point.

The NT also refers to Jesus as the prōtotokos (firstborn). While the term is mostly used to refer to the first child of a person or creature (sequence) having special rights and privileges (Gen 4:4; 10:15; 25:25; 48:18; 49:3; Exod 11:5; 13:2; 34:19; Num 18:15; Luke 2:7; Heb 11:28), God also referred to the people of Israel as His firstborn (Exod 4:22) and promised to make David His firstborn (Ps 89:27). The latter use of prōtotokos suggests exalting Him to a new status, irrespective of the biological birth order (see also Heb 12:23). That usage is reflected in the NT where Jesus is portrayed as “the firstborn of all creation,” for “by Him all things were created” (Col 1:15); as “be[coming] the firstborn among many brothers” because they were conformed to His image (Rom 8:29); as “the firstborn of the dead” because it is only through His life, death, and resurrection that we may hope to be resurrected and to receive eternal life (Col 1:18; Rev 1:5; cf. 1 Cor 15:12-19); and as “the firstborn” all angels of God are to worship Him at His enthronement or second coming (Heb 1:5-6; cf. Ps 89:27). Contrary to implying the idea of a supposed divine emanation or birth in the eternal past, the term points to Jesus’ preeminence in both creation and redemption because as God, He is able to represent God.

The Holy Spirit as God. With a few exceptions, the OT speaks rarely about the personality of the Holy Spirit. However, the NT writers give more emphasis to the Holy Spirit’s distinctive personality and function after the fuller manifestation of His activities on earth, starting with the apostolic era. The Holy Spirit is described as a divine agency acting independently, albeit in harmony, with the Father and the Son. The Spirit expresses individual consciousness by referring to himself in Acts 10:19-20 and 13:2 with the pronouns “I” (egō) and “me” (moi). The Spirit also equates Himself with God (Acts 5:3-4; 1 Cor 12:11, 28). In some cases, the NT writers equated the Holy Spirit with YHWH in the OT (cf. Exod 16:7; Ps 95:7-11; and Heb 3:7-11; as well as Isa 6:8-10 and Acts 28:25-27).

Various passages distinguish the Holy Spirit from the Son and the Father. For example, in the creation account, the Spirit is distinguished from Elohim (Gen 1:1-2), and in Isaiah, the Spirit is distinguished from YHWH and His divine Servant (e.g., Isa 42:1; 48:16-17; 61:1-3; 63:8-12). Further, Jesus distinguished the Spirit from Himself when He stressed that forgiveness is possible for a word spoken against Jesus, yet forgiveness is explicitly denied for a word spoken against the Holy Spirit (Matt 12:32). Similarly, the account of Jesus’ baptism distinguishes between Jesus on earth, the Father in heaven, and the Spirit coming down on Jesus (Matt 3:16-17; Mark 1:10, 11; Luke 3:21, 22). The Spirit is send by the Father in Jesus’ name, or send by Jesus through the Father, and is reminding of Jesus’ teachings and bearing witness about Him (John 14:26; 15:26). Like Jesus, the Spirit communicates God’s messages to us (John 16:13; 8:26) and intercedes for us before God (Rom 8:26, 27), serving as a go-between between us and God. In fact, Jesus has offered Himself through the Spirit without blemish to God (Heb 9:14), indicating different functions of the divine persons in the plan of salvation.

Further, the biblical writers applied divine attributes to the Holy Spirit, as they did with the Father and the Son, by describing Him as eternal (Heb 9:14), creator (Gen 1:2; Job 26:13; 33:4), omnipotent (Rom 8:11), omniscient (1 Cor 2:10), omnipresent (Ps 139:7-8), love (Gal 5:22), and worthy of worship (John 4:24). The Holy Spirit must be fully God because Scripture identifies those attributes as uniquely divine, stressing that only God has them.

The biblical writers also frequently applied to the Spirit personal attributes, i.e. attributes only persons can possess. They suggest that the Spirit forbids (Acts 16:6, 7); wills and desires (1 Cor 12:11); gives life (Rom 8:2); creates community (2 Cor 13:13); distributes spiritual gifts to whom He wills, including the prophetic gift (1 Cor 12:1-11; 2 Pet 1:21); sends (Acts 10:20); helps and intercedes (Rom 8:26, 27); speaks, teaches, and instructs (Neh 9:20; Luke 12:12; Acts 10:19; 13:2, 4; 1 Tim 4:1); has influence (1 Cor 12:3); convicts of sin, righteousness, and judgment (John 16:8); pours love into our hearts (Rom 5:5; 15:30); and dwells, testifies, reminds, leads, and comforts (John 14:16-18, 26; 15:26; 16:13; 1 Cor 3:16). The Spirit can be despised and tested (Heb 10:29; Acts 5:9; cf. Jas 1:13); can be blasphemed (Matt 12:31); lied to (Acts 5:3, 4); and can be grieved and become an enemy (Isa 63:10; Eph 4:30). Those personal attributes of the Spirit are complemented by activities that are otherwise carried out by personal entities or beings. The Spirit hovered (rakhaph) over the waters (Gen 1:2) as an eagle hovers (rakhaph) over its young (Deut 32:11). The Spirit lifted Ezekiel up and took him away (Ezek 3:14), taking him in visions to Jerusalem (8:3; 11:1), Babylon (11:24), and the temple (43:5).

The Spirit inspired and guided the biblical writers in the writing of Scripture (2 Tim 3:16; 2 Peter 1:20, 21; Mark 12:36), and the Spirit assists readers in their understanding of Scripture (John 16:13; 1 Cor 2:14). During the incarnation of Jesus, the Holy Spirit anointed Him as the Messiah (Luke 3:22; Acts 10:38) and empowered Him to minister to His fellow humans, heal the sick, and cast out demons (Luke 4:14, 18; Matt 12:28). As a human being, He refrained from doing anything without divine help (John 5:30). In the same way, the Holy Spirit now guides and strengthens Jesus’ followers to follow His example (John 16:13; Zech 4:6; 1 Peter 2:21; 1 John 2:6). The Spirit convicts of sin and righteousness (John 16:8), leads into the truth (16:13) and peaceful assurance (Rom 8:1, 14; 15:13), interprets our prayers (8:26), writes God’s law into our hearts (Heb 8:10; Jer 31:33; 2 Cor 3:3; Rom 5:5), and helps to testify of Jesus (John 15:26; Eph 3:16, 17; Acts 1:8). Since the Spirit explores the depths of God, God employs the Spirit to reveal the amazing aspects of that plan to those who love Him (1 Cor 2:10). The Spirit fills believers when they allow Him to baptize them, work in them, and sanctify them (Acts 5:32; 1 Peter 1:2; Eph 3:19), producing the fruits of the Spirit (Gal 5:22-26). The Holy Spirit continues to foster unity among Jesus’ followers (Eph 4:2-6).

Triadic References in the New Testament. A number of passages present the unity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit by placing their names next to each other. In the Great Commission (Matt 28:19-20), Jesus called His followers to make disciples and baptize them in “the name [to onoma] of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit,” i.e. one name (singular) for three persons (plural). The three are grouped together in numerous places in the writings of Paul and others, explaining their joint work in the plan of salvation. The Father-Son-Spirit sequence also appears in several other passages (2 Cor 1:21-22; Gal 3:11-14; Col 1:3-8). However, the order in which the three persons are mentioned alternates in numerous other passages. Second Corinthians 13:14 is one of the most significant passages after the baptismal formula, placing Jesus first, the Father second, and the Spirit third (cf. Rom 15:16; Eph 2:13, 16, 18). Yet in other passages, where Jesus is named first, the position of the Father and the Spirit are switched, placing the Spirit second and the Father third (Rom 15:30; Heb 9:14; 1 Pet 4:14). First Corinthians 12:4-6 and Jude 20-21 both mention the Spirit first, yet they differ in their order of the Father and Jesus. Whereas Paul refers to Jesus second and the Father third, Jude refers to the Father second and Jesus third. In numerous other places, the Father is mentioned first, the Spirit second, and Jesus third (Rom 14:17, 18; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:14-17; Phil 3:3; 2 Thess 2:13, 14; Heb 6:4-6; 1 Pet 1:2; Rev 1:4, 5). Two additional passages may not appear triadic at first sight, but they nevertheless allude to the triadic concept. In Acts 20:28, Paul asks the elders of the church at Ephesus to care for themselves and “all the flock, in which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to care for the church of God [tēn ekklēsian tou theou], which He obtained with His [idiou] own blood.” Some manuscripts from the fifth century AD have either tēn ekklēsian tou kyriou or tēn ekklēsian tou kyriou kai theou as variant readings, yet the reading tēn ekklēsian tou theou is attested already since the fourth century AD, implying that the church was redeemed either by God through His Son or by Jesus, who is God. Lastly, Hebrews 10:29 refers to “the Son of God” and “the Spirit of grace.” Although that passage does not refer directly to the Father, it implies Him in its reference to “the Son of God.” A survey of those passages shows that Paul saw the Father as originating salvation (Eph 1:3-6), the Son as bringing salvation to fruition (Eph 1:7-12), and the Spirit as communicating salvation (Eph 1:13, 14). The Father foreknows, chooses, and adopts. The Son redeems, reconciles, sanctifies, and glorifies. The Spirit changes and regenerates. Thus, all three are jointly involved in the work of redemption.

Triadic Structures in the New Testament Writings. Several NT writers outlined their writings by relating the work of one divine person to the others, without explicitly trying to work out the relationships among the three. Thus, in Romans, Paul explains the judgment of God on Gentiles and Jews (1:18–3:20), justification through faith in Jesus (3:21–8:1), and the significance of the creative work of the Spirit (8:2-30). In 1 Corinthians, Paul describes the close connection between Jesus and the Holy Spirit, against the background of the Father. In his overlapping and alternating treatment of the different persons, he first discusses Jesus as God’s power and wisdom (1:18–2:9), then explains the wisdom imparted by the Spirit (2:10-16) and Jesus as the foundation for the gospel ministry (3:10-15), and finally he stresses the believers are the temple of God because the Spirit dwells in them (3:16-17). Further, Paul discusses the gifts of the Spirit in the context of the welfare for the body of Christ, comparing the church as His metaphorical body to His literal physical body (chs. 12–14). Thus, in various ways, Paul placed his explanations on the redemptive work of God for the believers into a threefold framework, explaining what each of the divine persons does in ministering to them.

Reciprocal Service of the Divine Persons. The NT writers stress that the divine persons, rather than drawing attention to themselves, always pointed to one another and served one another. After Jesus had emptied Himself of His equality with the Father, the latter exalted Jesus and gave Him the highest name (Phil 2:1-11). Finally, Jesus will hand over the kingdom to the Father (1 Cor 15:24). The Father glorified the Son (John 8:54; 16:14; 17:1, 5; Acts 3:13), the Son glorified the Father (John 14:13; 17:1, 4; 21:19), and the Spirit glorifies the Son (John 16:14). The Father revealed Jesus (Matt 16:17), Jesus revealed the Father (Matt 11:27; Luke 10:22), and the Holy Spirit reveals Jesus and the meaning of His death (1 Cor 2:1-10). The Father sent Jesus (John 7:29; 14:24; 17:25), Jesus sent the Holy Spirit (John 15:26), and the Father sent the Spirit in Jesus’ name (John 14:16, 17, 26). Jesus spoke the words of the Father (John 14:24), and the Spirit reminds us of the things that Jesus said (John 14:26). Jesus represented the Father and revealed His character (John 14:8-10). Similarly, the Spirit represents Jesus, and Jesus dwells in His believers through His representative, the Holy Spirit (Rom 8:9-11). Jesus did not speak of Himself (John 12:49), nor does the Spirit speak of Himself (John 16:13, 14). Instead of pointing to themselves, they always point to, exalt, glorify, reveal, speak of, and represent each other. Following the general pattern of progressive revelation, the NT writers described the distinction and relationship between the divine persons more clearly than the OT writers had done it.

The Trinity in Adventist History. Some of the early Seventh-day Adventists came from a restorationist background that was wary of tradition, philosophy, and formal creeds. Seeing that the creeds utilized philosophical language to describe the doctrine of the Trinity, they generally objected to the entire concept of three persons as one God. The language of various creeds caused them to view the Trinity either as a form of modalism (three persons equal one person) or as a form of tritheism (three divine persons equal three Gods), contrary to the Bible’s emphasis on one God. They were concerned about the relationship between two persons—the Father, who they identified as God, and Jesus, who they identified as the Son who was begotten from the Father in the eternal past (not eternal generation though). Their understanding of “present truth” and their search for a better understanding of the Bible’s teachings drove them to gradually change their views on the doctrine of the Trinity while maintaining their core concerns for the personal relationship between several divine persons. As Seventh-day Adventists became more concerned with justification by faith in the merits of Christ in the 1880s and 1890s, they also began to stress His divinity and equality with the Father. They identified Him as the “Jehovah” (YHWH) of the OT. Some Adventist writers even affirmed His eternality, whereas most held on to the idea of His begottenness. Ellen White stated that Jesus was “eternal” and “self-existent,” and as having “original, unborrowed, underived” life. She quoted Proverbs 8:22-30 always in the context of Jesus’ immortality, self-existent life, and eternal preexistence (John 1:1-3; 8:58; Exod 3:14; Ps 90:2; Mic 5:1-2), stressing Jesus’ full eternal and self-existent divinity as the foundation for the sufficient value of His sacrifice. During the early and mid-1890s, some Adventist writers, such as G. C. Tenney, began to affirm the personality of the Holy Spirit and the doctrine of the Trinity. Ellen White variously confirmed the insights of Bible study gained by fellow Adventist writers, first on the divinity of Jesus, then on the personality of the Holy Spirit, and then on the harmonious unity of the three divine persons. As in the case of the Father and the Son, she referred to the Spirit as a “person,” “personality,” and “personage.” She referred to them together as three persons, personalities, agencies, powers, dignitaries, instrumentalities, and beings. Each of them is a personality and has a personality. All three are part of the Godhead, equal, and worthy of worship. Her remarks lent credibility to the progressive understanding of the biblical concept, without its philosophical and traditional baggage, so that more Adventists studied the subject and embraced a belief in the concept. Steering past modalism, tritheism, and the baggage of tradition, they maintained the early Adventist emphasis on the intimate relationship between the divine persons, which made them truly one. Starting in 1906, several prominent Adventists, such as H. C. Lacey, M. E. Kern, and F. M. Wilcox, referred to the doctrine of the Trinity as a doctrine of the church and a cardinal feature of Adventist faith. After 1913, the Trinity was listed among the denomination’s Fundamental Beliefs.

Theological and Practical Relevance. A proper understanding of the biblical doctrine of the Trinity has implications for other doctrines, Christian life, the community of believers, and the mission of the Christian church.

The Bible reveals unselfish, other-centered love as a central characteristic of God’s nature (2 Cor 13:11; 1 John 4:8, 16). His inherent nature of unselfish, other-centered love, coupled with His perfection, self-sufficiency, and eternal preexistence, requires the coeternal existence of another before the creation of any other being. While two persons have each other’s full attention and have no need to share it with somebody else, a relationship between three persons sometimes requires each of them to share the other person’s attention with the third person. The biblical teaching of one God consisting of three persons truly manifests God’s inherent unselfish love. Further, God’s desire for giving and caring relationships is seen in His creation of other intelligent beings such as angels and humans. In fact, His appearance as one of them, as the archangel Michael (lit. “who is like God”) (Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1; Jude 9; Rev 12:7-9) and Jesus (lit. “YHWH saves”), revealed Him as Immanuel, as “God with us” (Isa 7:14; Matt 1:23), who yearns for social relationships with His creatures.

The biblical concept of the Trinity also has implications for the doctrine of salvation. Ultimately, only God could truly reveal God and demonstrate both His love and justice (Rom 5:8; 3:25). If God had sent any other being, inferior to Him, to die for the human race, that very act would have proven Him to be selfish, cowardly, and cruel. Only somebody who is God and who is equal to God, choosing voluntarily to go all the way and risk everything to redeem and deliver those willing to accept His substitutionary sacrifice, could legally be a substitute, perfectly reflect the nature of God’s unselfish, other-centered love, and fully disprove Satan’s accusations against God’s character.

The biblical teaching of the Trinity has implications for worship. God wants to be served and worshiped for who He is, out of love, respect, and reverence rather than fear or force. The Bible clearly states that only the one God is worthy of worship (Exod 34:14; Ps 18:3) and that the worship of any other being, including angels, is prohibited (Rev 19:10; 22:9). Since each of the three divine persons are referred to as God and are ascribed personal and divine attributes, each of the divine persons is worthy of praise and worship. Thus, the resurrected Jesus received worship (Matt 28:9). Revelation 4-5 describes celestial scenes where heavenly beings worship the Father and Jesus (4:8-11; 5:8-14), directing all elements of praise (glory, honor, and power) equally to both. Further, Jesus’ followers are those who “worship by the Spirit of God and glory in Christ Jesus and put no confidence in the flesh” (Phil 3:3; cf. John 4:24). True spiritual worship is seen in believers’ allowing the Spirit to work in and through them in exemplifying the character of Christ by caring for those in need and sharing the good news with those who need it, and thus keep the Father’s commandments (Rom 12:1; 1 John 3:24).

As the greatest and continuous benefactor of the universe, God desires His creatures to reflect this unselfish, other-centered love in their relationships to Him, their fellow humans, and, to some extent, even animals. They are not only to avoid negative actions but also to show creative care for the other one’s wellbeing (Deut 6:4-5; Matt 22:37-38; Lev 19:18; Matt 22:39; cf. Exod 20:1-17; Deut 5:6-21). Divine love is seen in unselfish service/submission to the other one, caring for their spiritual, physical, mental, and emotional needs. Peace, harmony, and unity are the result where that service/submission is reciprocated, without the desire for dominance and control (Matt 20:26-27; 23:8-12; 25:44; Mark 9:35; 10:43-45; Luke 22:26). While God’s followers may have varying tasks and functions, they all should follow the example of God’s unselfish, caring, and loving mutual service in all of their relationships. A domineering spirit is contrary to the spirit of unselfish service. Those trying to emulate God’s character therefore cannot live in strict individualism but will be social beings. The fragmentation between different groups in society and the church in matters of race, gender, generation, wealth, and status meets its solution in the example set by the undivided unity and reciprocal unselfish and loving service of the three divine persons.

In sum, the biblical teaching of God presents three coequal, coeternal, omniscient, and omnipotent divine persons, one in nature, character, mind, purpose, love for each other and their creatures, and their actions in creation and salvation. As finite humans study what God has revealed of Himself in Scripture, they may marvel at the mystery of God’s infinite nature and character, a study that will engage their interest, fascination, and appreciation into eternity.

References

Capes, David B. Old Testament Yahweh Texts in Paul’s Christology. WUNT 47. Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1992.

Erickson, Millard J. Making Sense of the Trinity: Three Crucial Questions. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005.

Gulley, Norman R. Systematic Theology: God As Trinity. Volume 3. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 2011.

Ronning, John. The Jewish Targums and John’s Logos Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010.

Müller, Ekkehardt. Die Lehre von Gott: Biblischer Befund und theologische Herausforderungen. St. Peter am Hart, Austria: Seminar Schloss Bogenhofen, 2010.

Whidden, Woodrow W., John W. Reeve, and Jerry Moon. The Trinity: Understanding God’s Love, His Plan of Salvation, and Christian Relationships. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald, 2002.

Peckham, John C. Divine Attributes: Knowing the Covenantal God of Scripture. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2021.

Gibson, Ty. The Sonship of Christ: Exploring the Covenant Identity of God and Man. Nampa, ID: Pacific Press, 2018.

_____. Heavenly Trio: Exploring the Views of Ellen White and the Adventist Pioneers Regarding the Trinity. Nampa, ID: Pacific Press, 2020.

Kaiser, Denis. The Trinity in Early Adventist History (1846–1915). Biblical Research Institute Releases 26. Silver Spring, MD: Biblical Research Institute, 2023.

_____. The Trinity in Writings of Ellen G. White. Biblical Research Institute Releases 25. Silver Spring, MD: Biblical Research Institute, 2023.